The Sino-American Competition in Higher Education

Greek academies, such as Plato's Academy or the Library of Alexandria, as well as other higher education organisations, such as the University of Nâlandâ in India, the University of Nanjing in China, the Academy of Gundishapur in Iran, the Ashikaga gakkō in Japan, the Madrassa Zitouna in Ifriqiya, the Quaraouiyine School in Morocco, or the Salerno School of Medicine in Italy, already existed in ancient times. They were sometimes centres of specialised teaching of a very high level, particularly in the sciences in the Arab-Muslim world of the ninth century.

Founded in 1088 by an organised guild of students (studiorum), the University of Bologna (Italian: Alma Mater Studiorum – Università di Bologna, UNIBO) is the oldest university in continuous operation in the world, and the first degree-awarding institution of higher learning. At its foundation, the word universitas was first coined. It was the first educational institution to use the term universitas for the corporations of students and masters, which came to define the institution (especially its law school) located in Bologna. The university's emblem carries the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum ("Nourishing mother of studies"). (Wikipédia / en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universi…)

Authentica habita or Privilegium Scholasticum, was a document written in 1155 by the Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa. In it, he set out for the first time some of the rules, rights and privileges of students and scholars. It is an important precursor to the formation of medieval universities in Europe. Scholars from all over Europe had begun to travel to Bologna to study civil and canon law, and newly rediscovered works of Roman law, from the mid-11th century. As foreigners there, they found themselves without legal protection. A particular difficulty was the practice of the Right of Reprisal, where their property could be seized on foot of debts incurred by their countrymen.

During the Early Modern period (approximately late 15th century to 1800), the universities of Europe would see a tremendous amount of growth, productivity and innovative research. At the end of the Middle Ages, about 400 years after the first European university was founded, there were 29 universities spread throughout Europe. In the 15th century, 28 new ones were created, with another 18 added between 1500 and 1625. This pace continued until by the end of the 18th century there were approximately 143 universities in Europe, with the highest concentrations in the German Empire (34), Italian countries (26), France (25), and Spain (23) – this was close to a 500% increase over the number of universities toward the end of the Middle Ages. This number does not include the numerous universities that disappeared, or institutions that merged with other universities during this time. The identification of a university was not necessarily obvious during the Early Modern period, as the term is applied to a burgeoning number of institutions. In fact, the term "university" was not always used to designate a higher education institution. In Mediterranean countries, the term studium generale was still often used, while "Academy" was common in Northern European countries

Modern universities constitute a guild or quasi-guild system (a guild is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular territory). This facet of the university system did not change due to its peripheral standing in an industrialized economy; as commerce developed between towns in Europe during the Middle Ages, though other guilds stood in the way of developing commerce and therefore were eventually abolished, the scholars guild did not. According to historian Elliot Krause, "The university and scholars' guilds held onto their power over membership, training, and workplace because early capitalism was not interested in it." By the 18th century, universities published their own research journals and by the 19th century, the German and the French university models had arisen. The German, or Humboldtian model, was conceived by Wilhelm von Humboldt and based on Friedrich Schleiermacher's liberal ideas pertaining to the importance of freedom, seminars, and laboratories in universities. The French university model involved strict discipline and control over every aspect of the university.

Launched in 1987, the "Erasmus" programme was originally established to promote closer cooperation between universities and higher education institutions across Europe. Over time, the programme has expanded and is now referred to as Erasmus+, or Erasmus Plus, combining the EU's different schemes for translational cooperation and mobility in education, training, youth and sport in Europe and beyond. The 'Erasmus+' programme concluded its first funding cycle from 2014 to 2020 and is now in its second cycle, spanning from 2021 to 2027. Noted for its participation among staff, students, young people, and learners across age groups, as of 2021, the programme has engaged over 13 million participants. The origins of its name refers to Erasmus of Rotterdam a leading scholar and inspiring lecturer during the Renaissance period who travelled extensively in Europe to teach and study at a number of universities. But at the same time, the word “Erasmus” also served as the acronym for "EuRopean Community Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students" (Wikipedia / en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erasmus_…).

The Magna Charta Universitatum (Great Charter of Universities) is a short two-page document signed in Bologna, Italy in 1988 explicitly defining key principles underpinning the existence of universities such as academic freedom and institutional autonomy. The document is signed by higher education institutions with the aim to recognize and celebrate university traditions and to encourage cooperation among European universities. The document is intended to serve as a universal inspiration and is as such open to universities throughout the world and not only those located in Europe. The charter was established by the University of Bologna and the European Rectors' Conference (now EUA) in 1988, to mark the 900th anniversary of the University of Bologna, with 388 original signatories. As of 2018 it has been signed by 960 universities from 94 countries.

For the first time, a joint declaration was signed on Wednesday 9 October 2013 by four associations of the world's largest scientific universities, highlighting the ten main criteria defining contemporary scientific universities. The Association of American Universities (AAU), the China 9 Research Universities Consortium (C9), the Group of Eight Australia (Go8), and the League of European Research Universities (LERU) drew up this declaration as part of the C9's annual meeting in Hefei, China. Read it / www.aau.edu/sites/default/file…